The rifle
In the early nineteenth century, bullets were round. Because they
had to be pushed in from the open end of the gun, they didn’t fit
tightly. This space around the bullet meant that it didn’t fly very
straight when it was fired. Back in the sixteenth century, a new
gun had appeared which had curved lines cut into the inside of
the barrel. These made a quarter turn as they went from end to
end, so the bullet turned as it left the gun. This meant that a bullet
could fly much straighter and kill at a greater distance. There was
a disadvantage, though, because it was difficult to push the bullet
down the barrel. It took much longer to prepare this new gun—
called a rifle— for firing, so rifles were mainly used for hunting.
Many years later, though, this began to change. During the
War of Independence of 1775-83, Americans used their hunting
rifles against British soldiers and found they could hit their
enemies from a long distance. The British learned from the
experience, and riflemen fought in Portugal, Spain, and France
from 1807 to 1814. Dressed in green uniforms, they were taught
to move out ahead of the army and work independently.
Next, a gun was needed where the bullet didn’t have to be
pushed down the barrel. It was easy enough to make a gun that
could be opened, but there was an escape of gas from loose
gunpowder and the bullet didn’t travel as far. So the bullet and
the gunpowder were put inside a metal tube. This produced a
bullet as we know it today.
Although repeating rifles didn’t work well enough for armies
to use them until toward the end of the nineteenth century, even
a single-shot rifle could now fire fairly quickly and kill at a long
distance. So soldiers couldn’t stand in straight lines and shoot at
each other. In the American Civil War,* men used natural cover,
* American Civil War: a war (1861-65) between the north and the south of
the country
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or dug holes in the ground. We might think of this as the first
modern war, in the way that men fought, and in the numbers
who died. More than half a million people were killed.
The machine gun
In the year after the war began, a new and even more terrible
type of gun was invented. It had ten barrels, which were turned
by a handle and could fire 200 bullets a minute. Richard Gatling,
an American doctor, first thought of it, and it was called the
machine gun.
Twenty years later, an American called Hiram Maxim was
living in London when another American suggested a way for
him to get rich. He said that Maxim should invent something
that allowed Europeans to kill each other more easily. Maxim’s
answer was a machine gun with one barrel. Every time a bullet
was fired, the hot gas was used to pull the next one into position.
It could fire 300 bullets a minute.
In the first years, though, the Maxim gun wasn’t used against
Europeans, but mainly against Africans. The Maxim gun and the
repeating rifle allowed small numbers of soldiers to defend
themselves against large numbers of fighters who had little
equipment. Until this time, European control of Africa had been
mainly limited to areas near the coast. It was too expensive in
money and lives to try to take the more central areas using
single-shot guns. Now things changed. In 1879, a force of Zulus
had killed over 1,300 British soldiers at Isandlwana, in southern
Africa. Only fifteen years later, during the Matabele War, fifty
soldiers with four Maxim guns successfully defended themselves
against 5,000 Ndebele. At Omdurman, in 1898, Maxim guns
played their part in the killing of 11,000 men in exchange for
just twenty-eight British lives. The writer Hilaire Belloc
described the hard new reality when he wrote:
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W hatever happens, we have got
T he M axim gun, and they have not.
The new repeating rifles and the Maxim gun meant that quite
small numbers of soldiers were able to win battles in Africa. In
the last years of the nineteenth century, the European countries
raced to take control of the continent. This, and another race to
get more modern guns, led to the beginning of the First World
War in 1914.
The race also meant building bigger and bigger warships, but
when the war came, most of the ships stayed at home. Neither
side was willing to send them out; if they were lost, the country
would be defenseless. Instead, the war was fought on land, and
great numbers were killed by repeating rifles, machine guns, and
cannon.
On 1 July 1916, the British Army attacked the Germans along
the River Somme in France. By the end of the day, over 19,000
of its men were dead, and no real progress had been made. This
was the high point— or low point— of the power of the gun.
Since then, improvements in army vehicles and air power have
meant that the advantage isn’t always with the defenders.
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