East and west
For sailors, there was still the problem of how far east or west
they were. They could only tell this by drawing the direction and
speed of the ship on a map. But, over time, mistakes grew bigger
and bigger, and quite often ships sailed straight into the land that
they were trying to reach.
An example of this happened in 1707, when five British
warships were returning from the Mediterranean. They had sailed
for twelve days in fog. They hadn’t seen the sun, the stars, or land
in all that time, and they were very unsure of their position. The
navigators on each ship had records showing speed and direction,
so they compared their ideas, but they were wrong. As the ships
continued north, the first one hit the rocks around the Scilly
Islands off the southwest of England. Before anything could be
* North Pole, South Pole: the furthest north and south points of the Earth
15
done, three of the others had followed. Two thousand men died.
This was only one of many terrible events. Sometimes ships
crashed into rocks; in other cases they simply got lost, sailing until
men died of hunger. But this time four warships had been
destroyed close to home. Ships’ owners and officers put more
pressure on the British government, and in 1714 a new law was
passed. This promised a prize of ,£20,000 (around $2.7 million
today) to anyone who could find a solution.
The problem is actually quite a simple one. The world turns
around once every twenty-four hours. Each place in the world is
at a different time within those twenty-four hours. In any part of
the world, you can tell when it is noon by looking at the sun. If
you know that it is midnight in London, and the sun is above
you, it means that you are near the middle of the Pacific. If it is
3
p
.
m
.
in London, you are in the middle of the Atlantic. So you
only need a way of knowing the time in London. But that, for
the sailors of the time, was an enormous problem.
There were two possible ways of solving it. One way was to
use the stars. In 1610, Galileo discovered that Jupiter had four
moons. He studied these for a year, noting when they disappeared
behind Jupiter, and wrote down the times. He told his plan to
King Philip of Spain, who was also offering a prize to the
discoverer of a solution. Galileo’s idea wasn’t accepted because of
the difficulty of seeing Jupiter’s moons from ships, although it was
used by map-makers on land. Later in the seventeenth century,
special buildings were opened in Greenwich and Paris, where
scientists could watch the stars with the aim of helping ships tell
their position. The scientists made little progress. Their solutions
meant checking the position of a number of stars— which wasn’t
easy on a moving ship and was impossible in bad weather— and
then doing a lot of difficult mathematical work.
The other method was to make a clock or a watch that worked
on the ocean. It had to be unaffected by changes in temperature, air
16
pressure, or the movement of a ship. The problem was finally solved
by an English clockmaker, John Harrison, who between 1737 and
1770 built a number of better and better clocks and watches. But
the scientists didn’t like Harrison. He was only a clockmaker. They
argued against his solution to the problem, and as a result he was
only given half of the prize. He only received another £8,750
when he was an old man, after the king spoke for him.
Although the first of these new watches were expensive, they
were used more and more as time passed. W hen Captain James
Cook sailed to the Pacific for the second time in 1772, he took a
watch similar to one that Harrison had made. He found that the
method worked very well.
Radar and satellites
Through the nineteenth century and into the twentieth century,
ships and later airplanes continued to navigate by using the
height of the sun for north and south and watches for east and
west. Better instruments were produced for checking the sun, but
little else changed. The next step forward wasn’t taken until the
Second World War (1939—1945), when radar was invented.
An airplane could either fly along a radar signal, or find its
position from the strength of two signals which were sent out
from different places. Since radar signals travel in straight lines,
though, the curve of the earth limited its usefulness to a few
hundred kilometers.
W hen satellites were sent up above the earth, this problem was
solved. Today the world is covered by twenty-four of these
satellites and their ground stations. Now, a hand-held receiver,
costing less than $100, can measure the travel time of a signal
from them and tell you your position to within a few meters
anywhere on Earth. Navigation has come a long way from a
Piece of wood on the end of a piece of string.
17
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