Chapter 3 N avigation
Imagine that you are going to sail a boat across the ocean, and
you can take with you either a watch or a compass. W hich one
do you choose? The answer, of course, is a watch. You can use it
to find south, as any outdoor person knows. But it will tell you
something else, something equally important. This knowledge
has saved many sailors’ lives.
The sun and the stars
If you can tell how high the sun is in the sky at noon, or the
height of the N orth Star, Polaris, you know how far north or
south you are. This fact was known to the earliest sailors. To
measure this, Arabs used a piece of wood tied to the end of some
string. By the sixteenth century, European sailors were using a
similar tool, but made of two pieces of wood, with numbers
marked along the longer one.
A thousand years before this, John Philoponos of Alexandria
had described a new instrument which could take better
measurements. It was in the form of a circle and had a map of the
stars on it. This was also an Arab invention. You could use it to
find the time of day, the time the sun came up or went down, and
the direction of different places. Because it could tell the
direction of Mecca, it was popular in the Middle East.
Although this instrument worked very well, it was quite
expensive, and in time a simpler form appeared. This was shaped
like a quarter-circle. It had a piece of string hanging down. You
pointed the top edge of the instrument at a star, then held the
string in place and read the measurement. But even this was too
expensive for most European sailors, and they continued to use
the simple tool made of pieces of wood.
An important improvement on this was invented in about
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1594 by the English captain John Davis. He sailed a number of
times to the Arctic and gave his name to the area of water
between Greenland and Canada. Because it was very difficult to
look straight into the strong Arctic sun, he decided that the
navigator should use the shadow of the sun instead.
The navigator looked at the line between the ocean and the
sky through the holes A and B. He then moved holes A and C
until the sun shone through hole B. Then he added up the
measurements on the two curved pieces of wood. This new
instrument became very popular. It gave better measurements
and it meant that navigators didn’t have to look straight into the
sun every day and maybe go blind in one eye.
An instrument of navigation using the shadow of the sun
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The compass and maps
Although all of these instruments worked more or less well, there
isn’t much difference in the Mediterranean between the height
of the sun at noon in, for example, Genova in the north and
Alexandria in the south. So early Mediterranean sailors also kept
careful records of the movements of the ship. For this, they
needed a map, a way of knowing their direction of travel, and a
m ethod for measuring the speed of the ship.
By the third century, Chinese scientists knew that a type of
iron-rich stone had special qualities. They learned to cut a piece
of this stone into the shape of a spoon with a very smooth
bottom. This was placed on a smooth square metal plate. When
the spoon turned and stopped, its handle pointed to the south.
This was the first compass.
By the eleventh century, people realized that a very thin piece of
metal could be placed on this stone, and in time it “learned” to do
the same thing. If the piece of metal was then placed on water in a
bowl, it also pointed north and south. Chinese ships commonly used
compasses like these to tell which direction they were sailing in.
Some time later, the compass was known in Europe too. It
seems that it was discovered independently on both continents,
because the idea doesn’t appear in Indian or Arab writings. By
1190, Italian sailors were using needles on bowls of water.
To tell a ship’s speed, early sailors tied a piece of wood to some
string with some knots in it, each one separated by the same
distance. They then threw the wood over the side of the ship and
counted the number of knots as the knots ran through their
fingers. The number in a certain length of time told them the
speed of the ship. This was done regularly, and the results were
written in a book. Today, although instruments to measure speed
have improved greatly, we still describe the speed of a ship in
knots. A knot is equal to 1.85 kilometers an hour.
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From a very early date, people knew that the world was round.
In the third century
B .C .,
the Greek scientist Eratosthenes decided
that the distance around it was about 46,000 kilometers. This isn’t
very different from the correct figure of 40,000. Early map-makers,
like Ptolemy in the first century, had to use their knowledge of the
stars and travelers’ reports of distance and direction to decide
where places should appear. Naturally, they knew most about
places which were closer to home. Europe, the Mediterranean
area, and the Middle East were mapped quite well, but they
thought the distance to the Far East was greater than it actually is.
All of this early knowledge was lost to the West when the
Library of Alexandria was destroyed in a Roman war in the third
century. For the next thousand years, western map-makers took
many of their ideas from the Bible, filling their maps with places
from it. In the Arab world, more scientific methods continued,
and these were used for western map-making from the twelfth
century, when Europeans began to read Arab writing.
Between 1271 and 1295, the Venetian Marco Polo traveled to
the Pacific coast of China. He was able to give many details about
distant countries, and these were added to the maps of the time.
The best maps were, of course, very expensive, and ordinary
sailors used much simpler ones. These contained a lot of useful
information about winds, the movement of the ocean, and the
shape of the land when coasts were seen from a ship. It is
interesting that the Chinese had similar guides at the time.
By the fifteenth century, quite good maps of large areas of the
world were being produced, but there were still some problems.
Christopher Columbus (Colon), a navigator from Genova,
looked at the maps of the time and decided that he could reach
Asia by traveling west. He was correct, but the position of the Far
East was still uncertain. The maps told Columbus that it was
10,000 kilometers closer than it was. This is why, when he
reached America, he thought that he had arrived in India.
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Maps are, of course, flat, but the world is round. The Greeks
and Romans had tried to solve this problem, but their maps
weren’t very good for navigation. In 1569, a Flemish map-maker
called Gerard Mercator invented a new and very simple method,
and his name can still be found on many maps of the world. He
imagined putting a sheet of paper around the world, and then
shining a light from the center of the earth through it. The
different parts of the world could then be drawn on the paper.
A map like this has its faults. Countries nearer the N orth and
South Poles* appear bigger than they really are. But a straight
line on the map is also a straight line for traveling, which is a
great advantage. So sailors could simply draw a line and then read
the direction they wanted to go in. As well as for navigation, the
Mercator map is still the most popular in the home and in
school. It is how most of us see the world today.
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