Chapter 2 M athem atics
W ithout mathematics, it may be possible to build a very simple
house, road, or bridge, but greater understanding is needed for
more complicated jobs. People realized this at a very early stage of
human history, and their simple knowledge of numbers grew into
the skills which allow us to build computers and use the Internet.
Pythagoras
In 525
B.C.,*
the King of Persia led his army into Egypt and took
many prisoners. One of them was a Greek mathematician,
Pythagoras. Pythagoras was sent to Babylon, in modern-day Iraq,
and there he had the opportunity to study two things which the
Babylonians really knew about: mathematics and music. It is
possible that he learned about right-angled triangles from the
Babylonians. Some Babylonian writing, from at least a thousand
years before his visit, says:
4 is the height and 5 is the longest side. How wide is it?
Its size is not known.
4 times 4 is 16.
5 times 5 is 25.
16 from 25 leaves 9.
9 is 3 times 3.
So 3 is the width.
But they never formally proved this.
In mathematics, the most common system of counting uses
the number 10. We count up to 9, then we use the 1 again and
start changing the second number— 10, 11, 12 ... From the
Sumerians, who had lived in the area before 3500
B.C.,
the
Babylonians had taken a system which used 60.
They didn’t have to learn sixty different signs. Each of their
* B.C.:
years before the birth of Christ
6
numbers was built up from just two, one for “ 10” and one for
“1.” So when you reached 59, you had to write five “ 10” signs
and nine “1” signs in a special arrangement, but the Babylonians
didn’t seem worried by this. The system was good enough to tell
them about amounts of building materials, the number of
workers necessary for a job, and how many days were needed to
complete it.
After around five years, Pythagoras left Babylon and returned to
his home on the Greek island of Samos. There he started a school
of mathematics. But the Samians had a problem with his teaching
methods, and they also wanted him to take part in local politics, so
after two years he moved to Crotone, on the southern coast of Italy.
He started another school there, which took both male and
female students. Some of them lived in the school all the time.
They owned nothing and ate only vegetables. They were taught
by Pythagoras himself and believed in certain ideas. One of these
was that, at its deepest level, nature follows mathematical rules.
The teachings of Pythagoras came from this school. He wrote
nothing himself, because the school was very secretive. M odern
mathematics is interested in making up and solving mathematical
problems. Pythagoras’s school was interested in how mathematics
worked and what it meant to prove something. This was a great
step forward from the Babylonians, and the new mathematicians
thought of right-angled triangles as three connected squares.
Together, the areas of the squares on each of the shorter sides are
the same as the area of the square on the longer side. This could
easily be proved by cutting up the two squares and putting them
together to make the third.
The Pythagoreans were making good progress toward a
mathematical description of the world when they were stopped
by a simple problem. If you have a right-angled triangle with two
sides each of a length of 1, then l 2 + l2 = 2, so the length of the
third side is V2. But this can’t be given as a whole number. You
7
■ ■
Proving the length of the third side of a right-angled triangle.
can start with V2 - 1.4142135623730950488016887242097 ...
and you can continue forever. So you can only write this number
as V2. The Pythagoreans then discovered that V3, V5, V6, V7, and
V8 are also not whole numbers. So, some of the relationships in
nature couldn’t be written down using numbers. This was a great
problem for their way of thinking.
Euclid
Around two hundred years after Pythagoras, a man called Euclid
lived in Alexandria, Egypt. Although his home was there, he was
Greek. He certainly traveled to Greece, and it is probable that he
spent some time studying with Plato in Athens. W hen he
returned to Alexandria, he started a school of mathematics and
wrote a great book on the subject, the Elements. This was still in
use in some schools in the twentieth century, and it has been said
that after the Bible, it has been more studied, translated, and
reprinted than any other book.
Many of the ideas in the Elements didn’t start with Euclid. He
wanted to bring all knowledge of mathematics together in a
single book. He also introduced a new way of thinking, by
proving an idea, then using this to help prove another one. This
sounds simple enough to us today, but it was the beginning of the
method of proving ideas that we still use.
The Romans
After the Babylonians, the Egyptians, and the Greeks, the
Romans ruled the western world. They understood mathematics
well enough, but they weren’t very interested in it. Imagine a
Rom an engineer who has to build a wooden bridge across a
small river. The Romans took their measurements from parts of
the body— the length of a finger, a hand, a foot and, for longer
distances, a double step. The bridge will be forty-four double
steps long and four double steps wide. The pieces of wood to
make the road are each two double steps long and one foot wide.
There are five feet to each double step. So to reduce everything
to Roman feet, you simply write
(44
X
5)
X
(4
X
5)
( 2 x 5 )
Unfortunately, you have to use Rom an numbers, so it will
actually look like this:
(XLIV
x V ) X
(IV
XV)
(II XV)
O f course, Romans didn’t do it this way. Numbers were only
used for writing down the answer. Instead, they used a simple
9
machine or a counting board and within a few seconds got the
answer of CDXL (440).
Roman engineers were highly skilled. They built roads, water
systems, bath houses, and great buildings. But for them, as for the
Babylonians, mathematics was a way of improving their
buildings, not improving their minds. Pure mathematics, which
began in Greece, wasn’t reborn in Rome, but in the Middle East.
Al-Khwarizmi
For counting, we use nine numbers. Each of these numbers can
have a different value according to its position— so the “1” in
“ 100” isn’t the same as the “ 1” in “ 10.” This idea began in India
around the year 500, and from there it moved to the Arab world.
Around 786, a man called Al-Khwarizmi was born in
Uzbekistan. Later he worked in a school in Baghdad, and there
he wrote a book about using Indian numbers. W hen this book
was translated into Latin, it introduced the idea into Europe.
Al-Khwarizmi is also known as “the father of algebra.” In fact,
the word algebra comes from al-jabr, part of the Arabic title of
another book by Al-Khwarizmi. In this book, he describes two
important ideas about equations. First, you can move things from
one side to the other, which makes equations easier to solve: for
example 4x2 = 12x — 2x2 becomes 6.\'2 = 12x (so x = 2). He also
showed that you can make an equation easier by taking away the
same amount from each side: for example, x 2 + 4x + 40 = 1 lx + 30
can be reduced to x 2 + 10 = 7x (so x — 5).
Although Romans did little to add to our understanding of
these new ideas, the ideas became more widely known when
they were written in the Rom an language, Latin. W hen the
works of Pythagoras, Euclid, and Al-Khwarizmi appeared in
Europe in Latin translation, they helped to move human progress
forward.
10
|