Chapter 5 Engines
Until about 300 years ago, power came from the wind, from
water, or from the strength of humans and animals. Using these
forms of power, machines were built and people sailed around
the world. But the invention of the steam engine was the real
start of the modern age.
The steam engine
In the first century, the inventor Hero of Alexandria described a
ball with two jets. W hen the ball was filled with steam, the jets
Hero’s steam engine
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made it turn round and round. A model of this was made quite
recently. It turned 1,500 times a minute. The problem, though, is
that this kind of machine only works well at high speed. Hero
liked to make mechanical toys to entertain people, and it is
possible that he used this machine to power some of these. It is
unlikely that it had any other uses. A number of other writers in
later centuries suggested ideas for better steam engines, but it
took some time before anyone made one that actually worked.
In 1690, the Frenchman Denis Papin wrote a description of a
steam engine. He then actually built one and it was used to lift
water up to a higher level. In Papins engine, water inside a tube
was heated until it turned into steam and pushed up a round metal
plate. W hen this reached its highest point, cold water hit the
outside of the tube. This turned the steam inside back into water.
Water takes less space than steam, and the fall in pressure, with the
pressure of the outside air, pulled the metal plate down again.
In 1698, the English engineer Thomas Savery built a steam
engine that used two metal containers. Steam was put into each
of these in turn. W hen cold water hit the container from the
outside, the steam turned into water again and the change in
pressure could be used to lift up more water. Savery’s engine,
though, could only lift water a few meters without using
pressures which might cause an explosion.
In England in 1712, Thomas Newcomen, independently of
Papin, had drawn plans for a steam engine. In his engine, the
steam was heated separately before it was introduced into the
tube at low pressure. The round metal plate was connected to a
long piece of wood and the other end of the piece of wood lifted
water. The weight of the other end made the metal plate go up;
when the water turned into steam, the fall in pressure pulled it
down again.
Since the tubes in Newcomen’s engine, as in Papin’s, had to be
heated and cooled repeatedly, it could only operate twelve times
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Newcomen’s steam engine
a minute. Like other engines before it, it was only useful for
lifting water. It was widely used by 1725, though, and continued
to be used for sixty years, in Britain and in a number of other
countries.
James Watt
In Glasgow in 1763, the 28-year-old instrument maker James
Watt was given a model of a Newcomen steam engine to repair.
This model was used by the University of Glasgow for teaching.
While he was working on it, he thought about ways to improve
it. The idea came to him on a Sunday afternoon in 1765, during
a walk in the local park. He realized that if the steam was turned
back into water in a separate tube, the main tube could be kept
hot. This greatly increased the speed of the engine. At the same
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time, it reduced problems caused by repeatedly heating and
cooling the tube. Watt’s new engine was four times more
powerful than Newcomens.
Until 1774, cannon were made with a hole down the middle,
which meant that there might be some weaknesses in the barrel.
In that year, the Englishman John Wilkinson invented a machine
for cutting out the center of a cannon. James Watt had been very
worried about the escape of steam from his tubes because they
didn’t fit round the metal plates tightly enough. The two men
started working together, and W ilkinson’s new machine was used
in the production of Watt’s engines.
W ithin a few years, Watt had built an engine that introduced
steam both above and below the metal plate, allowing a double
action. He continued to try different ideas, and in 1781 he
produced a new engine. Unlike his earlier engines, where the
movement was up and down, this one could be used to make
wheels turn. Until that time, factories had to use horses or water
power to make their machines work. Now, one of Watt’s engines
could do the job, and do it better. It was soon used in many
factories.
Although he was responsible for moving ideas forward in a
number of ways, Watt can also be blamed for slowing progress
down. In 1755, he had been given the right to stop anyone else
making a steam engine like his. For the next twenty-five years,
his company made almost all steam engines, and Watt charged his
customers a lot of money for using one of them.
He compared his machine to a horse, which, he said, could
pull a weight of eighty-two kilograms. So a machine might be,
for example, a twenty-horsepower engine. Watt worked out how
much money each company saved by using his machine instead
of a team of horses. The company then had to pay him one-third
of this amount every year for the next twenty-five years. W hen
James Watt died in 1819, he was a very rich man.
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