The Types of Sentences
There are many approaches to classify sentences. Below we shall consider only some of
them.
B. Ilyish classifies sentences applying two principles:
1) types of communication. Applying this principle he distinguishes 3 types of sentences:
declarative, interrogative, imperative.
2) according to structure. Applying this principle he distinguishes two main types of
sentences: simple and composite.
Ch. Fries (31), (32) gives an original classification of types of sentences. All the utterances
are divided by him into Communicative and Non-communicative.
The Communicative utterances are in their turn divided into 3 groups:
I.
Utterances regularly eliciting “oral” responses only:
A) Greetings. B) Calls. C) Questions.
II. Utterances regularly eliciting "action" responses, sometimes accompanied by one of a
limited list of oral responses: requests or commands.
III. Utterances regularly eliciting conventional signals of attention to continuous discourse
statements.
L. Barkhudarov (3) compares source (kernel) sentences with their transforms, he
distinguishes several types of sentences from their structural view-point. His classification will
represent binary oppositions where the unmarked member is the source kernel sentence and
marked one is the transformed sentence.
The most important oppositions within the limits of simple sentences are the following
two:
1. Imperative (request) and non-imperative sentences.
2. Elliptical and non-elliptical sentences.
Summarizing the issue about the classification of sentences in the English language, we
can say that this can be done from different points of view. But the most important criteria so are
as follows:
1. the criterion of the structure of sentences
2. the criterion of the aim of the speaker
3. the criterion of the existence of all parts of the sentence.
From the point of view of the first criterion sentences fall under two subtypes: simple and
composite.
The difference between them is in the fact that simple sentences have one primary
predication in their structure while composite ones have more than one.
45
According to the criterion of the aim of the speaker sentences fall under declarative,
interrogative, imperative and exclamatory.
From the point of view of the existence of all parts of the sentence we differentiate
elliptical and non-elliptical sentences.
Below we shall consider these types of sentence.
Types of Sentences according to the Aim of the Speaker
The declarative sentences: This type of sentence may be called basic, when compared with
other types of sentences because all other types of sentences are the result of transformation of
kernel sentences which are affirmative in their origin (kernel sentences).
- they convey some statement. Maybe because of this fact these sentences are called
declarative.
- they usually have the falling an intonation
- usually they have regular order of words with no inversion.
Interrogative Sentences
Interrogative sentences differ from the declarative or interrogative ones by some their specific features.
There are two structural types of interrogative sentences in Modern English - general
questions (yes- or no- questions) and special (or wh-) questions. Both of them are characterized by
having partial inversions:
Are we staying here?
Where are we staying?
Besides, the first one has a special (rising) intonation pattern. The second one (wh-
question) has interrogative words. But the intonation pattern of wh-questions is identical with that
of the affirmative sentences.
And it is important to point out that the interrogative sentences require answers (if they are
not rhetorical ones).
Exclamatory Sentences
The peculiar features of these sentences are:
1. exclamatory sentences usually express some sort of emotion, feeling or the spirit of the
person who pronounces it;
2. in their structure they have such introductory words as what and how:
Ex. What a lovely night! How beautiful it is here!
3. they are always in the declarative form;
4. there’s usually no inversion;
5. they are pronounced with a falling intonation;
Imperative Sentences
The imperative sentences are opposed to non-imperative ones because.
1. In imperative sentences the predicate is used in only one form-in the imperative one,
while in non-imperative sentences predicate may be used in any form except the imperative.
2. In imperative sentences no modal verb is used.
3. The imperative sentences are most often directed to the second person.
4. The subject of the imperative sentences are almost always represented by the zero
alternant of you, that is, elliptically.
5. The imperative sentences urge the listener to perform an action or verbal response.
The above said is quite sufficient to characterize the structure of imperative sentences to be
specific and distinct from that of the structure of non-imperative sentences.
46
Elliptical Sentences
The problem of elliptical sentences has been and still is one of the most important and at
the same time difficult problems of syntax.
The problem is solved by different linguists in different way. According to H. Kruisinga's
(36) concept “Any noun that is used to call a person may be looked upon as a sentence, or a
sentence-word.
Some words regularly form a sentence, such as “yes” or “no”'; but they do so only in
connection with another sentence. Words used in a sentence with subject and predicate may also be
alone to form a complete sentence, but again in connection with another sentence only...”
As we stated above elliptical sentences are also the result of transformation of kernel
sentences. Since transforms are derived from kernel sentences they must be considered in
connection with the latter.
L. Barkhudarov (3) looks upon the sentences like «Вечер», «Утро» and so on as two-member sentences.
Really, if we isolate such utterances from the language system it will not be divisible. If an investigator wants to be
objective he cannot neglect the language system. Any unit of any language is in interdependence of the other units
of the language. Since the overwhelming majority of sentences are two-member ones as e.g. «Был вечер», «Будет
вечер» the above-mentioned utterances are also two-member ones. In sentences «Был вечер», «Будет вечер» the
predicates are expressed explicitly, while in «Вечер», «Утро» the predicates are expressed by zero alternants of the
verb «быть». M. Blokh is conception is very close to this (5), (6).
The classification of elliptical sentences may be based on the way of their explication. By
explication we understand the replacement of the zero alternant of this or that word by the explicit
one. There are two kinds of explication:
1. Syntagmatically restored elliptical sentences - when the explicit alternant of the elliptical
sentence is found in the same context where the elliptical sentence is:
One was from Maine; the other from California.
If you have no idea where Clive might be, I certainly haven't. (Nancy Buckingam).
2. Paradigmatically restored elliptical sentence - when the explicit alternant of the zero
form is not found in the context where the ellipsis is used but when it is found in similar language
constructions, e.g.
Stop and speak to me. (Galsworthy)
You listen to me, Horace. (Steinback)
One -member Sentences
“A sentence is the expression of a self- contained and complete thought”. Quite often the
terms are applied to linguistic forms lack completeness in one or more respects. It will of course be
readily agreed that sentences like “All that glitters is not gold” and “Two multiplied by two are
four”, are formally and notionally complete and self-contained.
But in everyday intercourse utterances of this type are infrequent in comparison with the
enormous number which rely upon the situation or upon the linguistic context - to make their
intention clear.
In the extract Strove asked him if he had seen Strickland. “He is ill”, he said. “Didn’t you know?” –
“Seriously?” – “Very, I understand”, to Fries “Seriously” is a sentence - equivalent. They all seem to be a complete
communication. But it can not be denied that each of them, either through pronouns (he, him) or through omissions,
depend heavily on what has been said immediately before it is spoken; in fact the last three would be unthinkable
outside a linguistic context. Properly speaking, therefore, omissions must be said to effect connection between
sentences (31), (32).
Sentences with syntactic items left out are natural, for omissions are inherent in the very
use of language. “In all speech activities there are three things to be distinguished: expression,
suppression, and impression.
Expression is what the speaker gives, suppression is what the speaker does not give, though
he might have given it, and impression is what the hearer receives”. (35)
Grammarians have often touched upon omissions of parts of sentences. But it is difficult to
find an opinion which is shared by the majority of linguists.
When considering the types of sentences some grammarians recognize the existence of
two-member, one-member and elliptical sentences. The two-member sentences are sentences
47
which have the subject and the predicate. However, language is a phenomenon where one cannot
foresay the structure of it without detailed analysis. There are sentences which cannot be described
in terms of two-member sentences. We come across to sentences which do not contain both the
subject and the predicate. “There's usually one primary part and the other could not even be
supplied, at least not without a violent change of the structure of the sentence", (llyish) Fire! Night.
Come on!
As Ilyish (15) puts it, it is a disputed point whether the main part of such a sentence should,
or should not be termed subject in some case (as in Fire! Night...) or predicate in some other
(Come on!; Why not stay here?) There are grammarians who keep to such a conception. Russian
Academician V.V. Vinogradov (10) considers that grammatical subject and predicate are
correlative notions and that the terms lose their meaning outside their relation to each other. He
suggests the term “main part”.
Thus, one member sentence is a sentence which has no separate subject and predicate but one main only
instead. B. Ilyish (15) considers some types of such sentences:
1) with main part of noun (in stage directions);
Night. A lady's bed-chamber ... .
2) Imperative sentences with no subject of the action mentioned:
Come down, please.
Infinitive sentences are also considered to be one special type of one-member sentences. In
these sentences the main part is expressed by an infinitive. Such sentences are usually emotional:
Oh, to be in a forest in May!
Why not go there immediately?
B.A. Ilyish (15) states that these sentences should not be considered as elliptical ones, since
sentences like:
Why should not we go there immediately? - is stylistically different from the original one.
By elliptical sentence he means sentence with one or more of their parts left out, which can
be unambiguously inferred from the context.
Study questions
1. What linguistic unit is called a sentence?
2. What are the main features of sentences?
3. What theories on sentence do you know?
4. What is the difference between primary and secondary predication?
5. What criteria are used to classify sentences?
6. What do you understand by structural classification of sentences?
7. What do you understand by the classification of sentences according to the aim of the speaker?
8. What do you understand by the classification of sentences according to the existence of the parts
of the sentence?
9. What is the difference between one- and two-member sentences?
10. What sentences are called elliptical?
11. What is “syntagmatically restored” and “paradigmatically restored”
elliptical sentences?
48
Lecture 13
Composite Sentences
Problems to be discussed:
- the difference between simple and composite sentences
- the types of composite sentences:
a) compound
d) complex
c) mixed (compound-complex) sentences
The word "composite" is used by H. Poutsma (39) as a common term for both the
compound and complex sentences.
There are three types of composite sentences in Modern English:
1. The compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses with no dependent one.
2. The complex sentence contains one dependent clause and one or more independent clauses. The latter
usually tells something about the main clause and is used as a part of speech or as a part of sentence.
J. The compound-complex sentence combines the two previous types. The compound-complex sentences
are those which have at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent (subordinate) clause in its
structure: Blair found herself smiling at him and she took the letter he held out to her.
That there are three types of composite sentences in languages is contemporary approach to this issue.
Historically not all the grammarians were unanimous in this respect. According to it H. Sweet (42) there are
structurally two types of sentences: simple and complex.
“Two or more sentences may be joined together to form a single complex sentence … In every complex
there is one independent clause, called the principal clause together with at least one dependent clause, which stands
in the relation of adjunct to the principal clause. The dependent clause may be either coordinate or subordinate”.
Examples:
Principal clause
1.You shall walk, and I will ride.
Coordinate clause
Co-complex
Principal clause
2. You are the man I want.
Subordinate clause
Sub-complex
As one can see in H. Sweets conception there’s no place for compound sentences since even so-called “co-
complex” there’s subordination.
In this paper we shall classify the composite sentences into three types as has been mentioned above.
Compound Sentences
The compound sentence was not felt to be a sentence proper. There were at least three
methods, as L. Iophic and Chahoyan (17) state, employed by the grammarians to find a way out of
this difficulty: (1) to explain it away by the complete independence and the possibility of isolating
each member of a compound sentence without any change of its meaning or intonation; (2) by
employing new terms to express more exactly the grammatical peculiarity of this combination of
sentences. The terms “double”, “triple” and “multiple” sentences were used by E. Kruisinga (36) in
“A Hand-book of Present day English” and H.R. Stokoe (41). (3) by excluding this concept from
the structural classification of sentences.
The analysis of compound sentences show that clauses of a compound sentence are usually
connected more closely than independent sentences. According to M. Blokh (7) “in these sentences
the clauses are arranged as units of syntactically equal rank, i.e. equipotent” (p.296). But more
close examination of these type of sentences shows that:
1. The order of clauses is fixed.
1.1. He came at six and we had dinner together.
1.2. The two women understood one another very well, but Paul seemed to be left outside
this conversation.
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1.3. Every drawer in every room had been taken out, the contents spilled, the bed had been
ripped apart, pictures were off their hooks and (they) were lying on the floor.
One cannot change order of the clauses in these sentences.
2. Between clauses of compound sentences there exist certain semantic relations. And these
relations are defined by conjunctions and connectives:
2.1. Harmony or agreement (copulative relation):
Her lips trembled and she put up her hand as if to steady them with her fingers.
2.2. Contrast or opposition. This relation is usually expressed by adversative conjunctions but, yet:
The conjunctions are not numerous but they are of very frequent occurrence.
2.3. The choice or alternation (disjunctive conjunction- or): Is that historically true or is it not?
2.4. Reason or consequence (or conclusion) for, so... E.g.
He had apparently been working, for the table was littered with papers.
There's no car available, so I shall go on foot.
Complex Sentences
Linguists explain the complex sentences as units of unequal rank, one being categorically dominated by the
other. In terms of the positional structure of the sentence it means that by subordination one of the clauses (subor-
dinate) is placed in a dependent position of the other (principal). This latter characteristic has an essential semantic
implication clarifying the difference between the two types, of polypredication in question. As a matter of fact, a
subordinate clause, however important the information rendered by it might be for the whole communication,
presents it as naturally supplementing the information of the principal clause, i.e. as something completely premedi-
tated and prepared even before its explicit expression in the utterance (5), (6), (7).
The Types of Complex Sentences
The subordinate clauses are classified according to the two criteria: meaning and
combinability. The clauses of a complex sentence form the unity, a simple sentence in which some
part is replaced by a clause.
The subject clauses are used in the function of a primary part of the sentence. The peculiarity of the subject
clause is its inseparability from the principal clause. It is synsemantic; it can't be cut off from the rest of the
sentence.
What he says is true.
The predicative clause fulfills the function of the notional predicate (the function of the
predicative).
e.g. The thing is what we should do the next.
The Adverbial clauses serve to express a variety of adverbial relations:
action quality. Mike acted as though nothing had happened.
=manner
.
Everybody should love her as he did.
Some more complex sentences:
What the newspapers say may be false (subject clause).
I don't remember what his name is. (object)
He thought that it might well be. (object)
The lot that is on the corner needs moving. (attributive)
He is a man whom I have always admired. (attributive)
When Bill decided to leave, everyone expressed regret. (adverbial clause of time)
The Structural Approach to Composite Sentences
One of the representatives of structural linguists Ch. Fries (31), (32) considers two kinds of
composite sentences: sequence sentences and included sentences. The sequence sentences consist
of situation sentence and sequence sentence. Example:
1. The government has set up an agency called Future builders.
2. It has a certain amount of fund to make loans to social enterprises.
These two sentences are connected with each-other. The first sentence is a situation sentence and the
second one is a sequence sentence since it develops the idea of the situation sentence.
In the following example “The biggest loan has gone to M. Trust, which runs a school for handicapped
children.” There are also two sentences included into one but they are not separated by a period (full stop).
Thus, in both cases there are certain signals that serve to connect the constituents, they are “if” in the
sequence sentence and “which” - in the included one.
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The most significant difference between these function words as signals of “inclusion” and
the forms given above as signals of sequence lies in the fact that these function words of inclusion
at the beginning of a sentence look forward to a coming sentence unit, while the signals of
sequence look backward to the preceding sentence unit.
When sentence units are included in larger units they can fulfill a variety of structural
functions. In the structure of the larger sentence unit in which they are included they often operate
as a single unit substitutable for one of the single part of the speech.
C.H. Fries, as we see, makes an attempt to reject the traditional classification and terms. He
substitutes for the traditional doctrine his theory of included sentences and sequences of sentences.
His attitude towards the traditional concept of the compound sentence is primarily a matter of the
punctuation of written texts.
Study questions
1. What does the term “composite” mean?
3. What types of composite sentences do you know?
4. Specify the compound, complex and mixed type of composite sentences.
5. What are the problems connected with compound sentences?
6. How are the complex sentences are classified?
7. What does H. Sweet mean by “co-complex” and “sub- complex”?
8. What is the structural approach to the problem of composite sentences?
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GLOSSARY
English
Uzbek
Russian
A
ablative
аблатив келишик
аблативный падеж
absolute
абсолют, муста=ил, мутла=
абсолютный
abstract
мавщум
отвлечённый, абстрактный
accent
ур\у, акцент
ударение, акцент
accidence
Америка ва Британия
тилшунослиги бу атама
ор=али грамматиканинг
морфология =исмни
тушунишади.
словоизменение, морфология
accommodation
мослашув
аккомодация
accusative
аккузатив келишик
винительный падеж
active
фаол, ани=
действительный
active voice
ани= даража
действительный залог
adjective
сифат
прилагательное
adjunct
=арам сыз
ведомое (подчинённое) слово
adverb
равиш
наречие
adverbial
равиш ор=али ифодаланган
наречный
adversative
зид
противительный
affix
аффикс, кышимча
аффикс
agent
иш бажарувчи
деятель
agglomerating (languages)
мужассамлаштирувчи тиллар
инкорпорирующие языки
agglutination
агглютинация
агглютинация
agglunative languages
агглюнатив тиллар (туркий ва
фин-угор тиллари)
агглютинативные языки
agreement
мослашув
согласование
allomorph
алломорф, морфеманинг бир
кыриниши
алломорф
alphabet
алфавит, алифбо
алфавит
alternative
танлов, альтернатив
альтернативный
analysis
тащлил
анализ
analytic (languages)
аналитик (тиллар)
аналитические языки
anaphora
анафора
анафора
anaphoric
анафорик, кырсатиш
анафорический, указательный
animate
жонли
одушевлённый
animate nouns
жонли отлар
одушевлённое имя
существительное
antithesis
антитеза
антитеза
antonym
антоним, зид
антоним
apostrophe
апостроф
апостроф
applied
амалий
прикладной
applied linguistics
амалий тилшунослик
прикладное языкознание
apposition
изощловчи
приложение
archaic
архаик, =адимий
архаический
52
archaism
архаизм
архаизм
area
худуд
ареал
areal linguistics
ареал (худуд) тилшунослик
ареальная лингвистика
article
артикл
артикль
artificial (language)
суъний (тиллар)
искусственные (языки)
aspect
аспект
вид
assimilation
ассимиляция
ассимиляция
assumptive
тахминий
предположительный
attribute
ани=ловчи
определение
auxiliary
ёрдамчи
вспомогательный
auxiliary verb
ёрдамчи феъл
вспомогательный глагол
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