Chapter I. Victorian era. I. 1 Government and politics in the Victorian era

I.3 Victorian culture and art
More access made British cultural products more important. Not only did they reveal much about the society from which they emerged, but during the Victorian period Britain was the cultural capital of the English-speaking world (including the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand). Victorian performance and print culture were rich and varied, a blend of melodrama, spectacle, and morality. Theatre thrived. Melodrama—which featured evil villains, virtuous heroines, and intricate plots—was the most important and most popular genre early on; later, sensation drama became popular. Even more popular were music halls, which featured varied programs of singing, dancing, sketches, and more; these emerged in the 1850s, and by the 1870s there were hundreds across Britain, some seating thousands of people. Music halls attracted people of all classes. Print culture was also large and diverse, aided by relatively high literacy rates. There were hundreds of magazines and newspapers available at ever cheaper prices. The 1880s saw the emergence of “the New Journalism,” which drew in readers with pieces on violent crimes and scandals in high society. Novels were another key feature of Victorian print culture. By mid-century, Britons of all classes could afford and read novels. Some were aimed at highly educated and well-off people, others at less-educated readers looking for appealing and exciting stories. Penny dreadfuls and sensation novels, seen at their best in the work of Wilkie Collins, thrilled their readers. Victorian novels were often quite long, with complicated plots (often centred on marriages) and many characters. Many, especially those by Charles Dickens, are still read today. ⁵

CHAPTER II. VICTORIAN LITERATURE, POETRY AND NOVEL.

II.1 Victorian literature
The important writing of the Victorian period is to a large extent the product of a double awareness. This was a literature addressed with great immediacy to the needs of the age, to the particular temper of mind which had grown up within a society seeking adjustment to the conditions of modern life. And to the degree that the problems which beset the world of a century ago retain their urgency and still await solution, the ideas of the Victorian writers remain relevant and interesting to the twentieth century. Any enduring literature, however, must transcend topicality; and the critical disesteem into which so much Victorian writing 2 has fallen may be traced to the persistent notion that the literary men of that time oversubscribed to values with which our own time is no longer in sympathy. Yet this view ignores the fact that nearly all the eminent Victorian writers were as often as not at odds with their age and that in their best work they habitually appealed not to, but against the prevailing mores of that age. The reader who comes to the Victorians without bias must be struck again and again by the underlying tone of unrest which pervades so much that is generally taken as typical of the period. Sooner or later he begins to wonder whether there is any such thing as a representative Victorian writer, or at any rate, whether what makes him representative is not that very quality of intransigeance as a result of which he repudiated his society and sought refuge from the spirit of the times in the better ordered realm of interior consciousness. Since, however, any tendency to exalt individual awareness at the expense of conventionally established attitudes ran counter to the concept of the role of the artist which the Victorian age tried to impose on its writers, there resulted a conflict which has been too often ignored, but which must be taken into account in reaching any satisfactory evaluation of Victorian literature. This was a conflict, demonstrable within the work of the writers themselves, between the public conscience of the man of letters who comes forward as the accredited literary spokesman of his world, and the private conscience of the artist who conceives that his highest allegiance must be to his own aesthetic sensibilities. Most Victorian writers still thought of themselves as men of letters in the full meaning of the term. Victorian literature was predominantly a literature of ideas, and of ideas, furthermore, brought into direct relation with the daily concerns of the reading public. To a degree now inconceivable the influential literary types of the nineteenth century were 3 expository in character-the essay, tract, and treatise. The student who wishes to understand the Victorian world begins with such works as Past and Present,The Stones of Venice, On Liberty, Culture and Anarchy (text). The assumption that a writer's first responsibility is to get into close correspondence with his audience induced many of the original thinkers in the period to turn aside from their fields of special knowledge, to the end of making their theories more generally accessible. SoMill, Carlyle, Ruskin, Arnold, Morris, Huxley, after achieving distinction along specialized lines, gave up exclusive concentration on these in order to apply the disciplines they had mastered to subjects of the broadest human import. Or, to consider the novel, Dickens, George Eliot, Disraeli, Kingsley, Mrs. Gaskell, and Charles Reade all quite evidently chose themes with an eye to their social significance. Yet, paradoxically, it becomes increasingly difficult to think of the great Victorians as other than solitary and unassimilated figgres within their century. Deeply as they allowed themselves to be involved in the life of the times, familiarity seemed only to breed contempt. Their writings, inspired by a whole-hearted hostility to the progress of industrial culture, locate the centers of authority not in the existing social order but within the resources of individual being. Nor was this procedure merely a reaction to the isolation which is traditionally visited on prophets without honor, although for many the years brought disillusionment and bitterness over the debacle of cherished programs of reform. The prestige of a Carlyle or Ruskin or Newman may almost be said to have risen in inverse ⁶proportion to the failure of their preachments. At the core of the malaise which pervades so much that is best in Victorian literature lies a sense, often inarticulate, that modern society has originated tendencies inimical to the life of the creative imagination. By mid-century the circumstances of successful literary production had begun to make demands on writers 4 which strained to the breaking point their often very considerable capacities for compromise. Among novelists the careers of Dickens and Thackeray epitomize the all but intolerable difficulties of reconciling popular appeal with artistic integrity. A new generation, led by Rossetti and Swinburne, was to resolve the dilemma by an outspoken assertion of the artist's apartness; but for the writers who came of age in the 1830's and 1840's no such categorical disavowal of social commitment was admissible. As a result, there is recognizable in their work a kind of tension originating in the serious writer's traditional desire to communicate, but to do so without betraying the purity of his creative motive even in the face of a public little disposed to undergo the rigors of aesthetic experience. Even when, as was too often the case, their love of fame overcame their artistic restraint, traces of the initiating conflict remain imbedded in what they wrote; and it is these constantly recurring evidences of a twofold awareness which, perhaps more than any other trait, give its distinctive quality to the writing of the Victorian age. Victorian Poetry is a major re-evaluation of the genre by one of the foremost scholars of the period. In a work that is uniquely comprehensive and theoretically astute, Isobel Armstrong rescues Victorian poetry from its longstanding sepia image as a moralized form of romantic verse', and unearths its often subversive critique of nineteenth-century culture and politics. For the first time, the aesthetics and politics of Victorian poetry are brought together in a sustained historical discussion. Isobel Armstrong examines its conservative and dissident traditions, and compares the work of familiar middle-class male poets to that of female and working-class poets. Victorian Poetry brilliantly demonstrates the extraordinary sophistication of the genre. At the same time it presents a vigorous challenge to some crucial issues in contemporary Marxist, post-structuralist and feminist criticism. 5 Writers of the Victorian era created literature that commented on societal, economical, religious, and philosophical ideas of the time. Much of Victorian literature criticized the increased industrialization of the world, and on the other hand, the deterioration of the rural lifestyle. Much Victorian literature dabbled in satire as it critiqued the society it entertained. While the middle class increased its political power over society, the poor had to make due with less. Writers of the Victorian era critiqued this imbalance of power in their work. Victorian literature addressed the themes of conflict among the classes as well as the burgeoning push for women's rights. However, the defining characteristic of Victorian literature is a strong focus on morality. Heroes of Victorian literature are often the oppressed members of society, such as the poor. Victorian writers romanticized hard work and strong virtue. Characters with good morals were usually rewarded, while characters who acted poorly received their just desserts in the end. Victorian fiction was often written with the intention of teaching a moral lesson to readers. Underneath the moral surface, characters in Victorian literature are often teeming with passion and tempted by evil. The characters of Victorian literature, however, show restraint against their wild emotions—a restraint that was abandoned by the Romantic writers who came before, celebrating wildness and uncontrollable emotions. Another popular theme of Romantic literature was the celebration of the past. During the Victorian era, many readers also sought stories about chivalry and courtly love. The poet laureate of the time—Alfred, Lord Tennyson—published a cycle of twelve narrative poems called "Idylls of the King" in the mid-nineteenth century. The poems told the story of the legend of King Arthur's kingdom, although some details were changed to better teach the 6 moral lessons of the day. For instance, in Tennyson's version of the story, Lady Guinevere repents for her infidelities to the king by spending the rest of her life in a convent. Many critics saw the poems as an allegory for popular problems in Victorian culture, such as the struggle to remain morally ideal and women's attempts at earning more power.⁷