Chapter 8 C om puters
N ot long ago, all letters were written by hand or on typewriters,
and information was held mainly in libraries. Affordable personal
computers only appeared in the 1980s, followed by the Internet
and e-mail a few years later. It is easy to forget how recent these
inventions are.
Charles Babbage
In 1943, Thomas J. Watson, who started the company IBM, said
that he thought there was a world market for about five
computers. He was very wrong. There are now over 100 million
personal computers in use around the world— as well as the bigger
computers used by large organizations.
In 1822, in England, Charles Babbage began work on a counting
machine. He was given £1,500 of government money to complete
the job, and worked on it for the next ten years. This became
known as the Difference Engine Number 1. The government’s
patience finally ended in 1834, when Babbage still hadn’t finished
building it, but had planned the first programmable computer. This
included programs (written using cards with holes in them), a
reader which was able to get results from the information, and a
memory— all the things that were found in later computers.
Babbage asked the government for money to make the new
machine, but was refused. He then built the Difference Engine
Number 2. At two meters high, this was a slightly smaller and
much simpler model that used only a small number of the 25,000
parts in the first machine. In 1991, one hundred years after
Babbage’s death, a copy was built using his plans. It did what
Babbage said it would do. Babbage wasn’t recognized in his
lifetime. Very few people knew about his work and most of them
weren’t interested.
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Early computers
Later in the nineteenth century, in the US, Herman Hollerith
also used cards with holes when he invented a machine to count
government figures more quickly. The 1880 population count
had taken eight years, and people were worried that the 1890
one would take even longer. Hollerith’s machine, which used
electricity to read, sort, and count the cards, did the job in a year.
The English mathematician Alan Turing led the move toward
a machine that was able to “think” in a real way. He wrote a
paper which is the real start of the computer age, about a
machine that read and wrote information, with a memory to
hold it in, a central processor, and a program of mathematical
commands. This became known as a “Turing machine.”
During the Second World War, Turing worked on reading
secret German messages. The work also included the building of
a simple computer. After the war, he used his knowledge of
mathematics to write the first programming languages.
In Germany, Konrad Zuse started work on his first mechanical
computer in 1934, but two years later he changed to electrical
connections. In 1940, the war interrupted the building of his
third computer, but after a year he left the army and completed
the Z3, an electrical machine which was controlled by a
program. The German air force helped him, and the Z3 was used
to help build airplanes and the V2 rockets. At the end of the war,
Zuse’s latest machine was taken to Switzerland to be finished.
This was the Z4, the first fully-programmable computer. It had a
mechanical memory of 1,024 words.
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