1943 and used by the US army. It was 150 square meters in size
and needed an enormous quantity of electricity. It also became
very hot, and this was a great problem.
The first computer for business use, the UNIVAC 1, was also
used to count population. It became famous when it said that
Dwight D. Eisenhower would win the race to become president
in 1952. Its operators refused to believe this and reprogrammed it
for a more likely result. W hen Eisenhower won easily, somebody
said, “The problem with machines is people.”
In the late 1950s, the transistor was invented. This was cheaper,
smaller, and worked better than the old electronic connections. In
1958, Jack St. Clair Kilby of Texas Instruments had the idea of
putting a few transistors together on a board. Today, hundreds of
thousands of electronic parts can be put together on a board that
is no more than one centimeter square.
The Colossus computer (in use in Britain from 1944)
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In 1971, the Intel 4004 processor appeared. The central
working part of the computer was now brought together in
something that you could hold in your hand. Gordon Moore,
who started Intel, said in 1965 that the power of processors
would double every twelve months for the next ten years. This
was changed to eighteen months in 1975, and since then
“M oore’s Law” has continued to be true.
In 1965, US engineer Kenneth Olsen produced the PDP-8.
This was a machine about the size of two televisions and it sold
for $18,000, much less than the $1,000,000 cost of larger
computers. It was a great success with scientists and engineers.
The first three personal computers appeared in 1977. The best
of these was the Apple II. Two years before, Stephen Wozniak
had built and marketed the Apple I. This had no case, all the
electronics could be seen, and it was only for serious computer
hobbyists. Wozniak’s friend Steve Jobs asked him to build a
machine that more people could use. The result was the Apple
II, which sold for $1,298.
Among a number of computer hobbyists in California were Bill
Gates and Paul Allen, who started Micro-Soft (later Microsoft).
IBM, which had seen the success of the Apple II, was interested
in selling its own machine. Microsoft was given the job of
writing the operating system. IBM could use this system, but not
own it, so Microsoft received $10 for every copy sold. IBM had
failed to realize that systems, not machines, were going to make
money in the future. This was possibly the biggest mistake in the
history of computers.
Large numbers of companies produced copies of IBM
machines, but every machine— about 30 million in the 1980s—
used Microsoft systems. The power of IBM meant that business
followed its lead, and the Apple machines were mainly bought by
home users or by people who needed good drawing systems.
In 1971, IBM produced the first floppy disk. This came in a
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paper packet and was twenty centimeters wide, but it was still a
great improvement on the tapes that had been used before. The
modern nine-centimeter disk was first produced by Sony in 1981.
The Internet
In 1969, several university and government computers were
connected together by the US Department of Defense, so
scientists in different parts of the world could share information
and work together. Two years after this, a program for sending
electronic mail (“e-mail”) was written. The first international
connection was made in 1973 between University College
London and Norway. Queen Elizabeth II of the United
Kingdom sent her first e-mail in 1976. Three years later, the
University of Essex built a system which allowed a number of
users to exchange information at the same time. In 1982, the
word “Internet” was invented to describe this.
In 1989, Philip Emeagwali, who came from Nigeria but
worked in the US, connected 65,536 separate computer
processors to work together and perform 3,100,000,000
mathematical operations every second. These were used in the
search to find oil.
Two years later, the Englishman Tim Berners-Lee invented a
new system. This made it possible to find and read documents
without knowing where they actually were, and it became
known as the “World Wide Web.” It appeared on the Internet in
1991, starting an explosion of information. For the next two
years, use of the Internet grew at around 341,000% each year.
The ability of computers to do difficult mathematics and the
power of the Internet to help people communicate with each
other have made it possible to improve ideas much faster than
before. All the more recent inventions in this book have been
helped by computers.
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