Table 9.
Nuclear waste disposal methods and operating or planned disposal facilities.
Disposal Method
Country
Facility
Waste
NSDF (trench)
France
CIRES, Morvilliers
VLLW
Spain
El Cabril Disposal Facility
VLLW
NSDF (
engi
neere
d)
France
CSA, department of Aube
Short-lived LILW
CSM, near La Hague
Short-lived LILW
Czech Republic
Dukovany Repository
LLW
Richard Repository near
Litoměřice
LLW
Russia
FSUE RADON near Ser-
giev Posad
Short-lived LILW, DSRS
Slovakia
National Radioactive
Waste Repository Mo-
chovce
LLW
Spain
El Cabril Disposal Facility
VLLW, LLW, ILW, DSRS
UK
LLW Repository at Drigg,
Cumbria
LLW
Intermedia
te
de
pths
Romania
National Repository
Baiţa-Bihor
LILW
Finland
Loviisa VLJ Repository
LILW
Olkiluoto VLJ Repository
LILW
Sweden
SFR Forsmark
LILW
GD
F
US
WIPP
Transuranic (TRU) waste
Yucca Mountain
HLW, SNF
Sweden
Forsmark site
SNF
Finland
Olkiluoto site
SNF
France
Bure site
HLW, SNF, Long-lived ILW
China
Xinchang site in the
Beishan area
HLW, SNF
Energies
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Russia
Yeniseiskiy site in the
Krasnoyarsk Krai
HLW, SNF
Germany
Asse II (former salt and
potassium mine, past
practice, waste to be re-
trieved)
Waste with negligible heat genera-
tion
ERAM (Morsleben) (for-
mer salt and potassium
mine, past practice, facil-
ity to be closed)
Waste with negligible heat genera-
tion
Konrad (former iron ore
mine, under construction
including new emplace-
ment vaults)
Waste with negligible heat genera-
tion
In the UK, the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) has developed a set of
generic GDF concepts appropriate to the geological environments that have not yet been
selected although the experiences of GDF in Sweden and Finland are fully accounted for.
For some types of nuclear waste, such as SNF, a possible approach is the use of deep and
very deep boreholes [22]. The well-advanced GDF in Sweden and Finland aim to dispose
of the SNF in a granitic bedrock using copper containers with cast-iron inserts. The con-
tainer will be placed into vertical holes within horizontal tunnels and will be backfilled
with highly compacted bentonite, which swells in contact with water. The copper con-
tainer is expected to remain un-breached by corrosion for a period in the order of 100,000
years [22].
Germany is planning to dispose of the non-heat-generating nuclear wastes at the for-
mer Konrad iron ore mine with past disposal practices at the Asse II and Morsleben sites
[7,8]. The disposal of heat-generating wastes was planned within salt (halite) formations
with thick carbon steel containers placed in disposal holes or shafts and surrounded by
crushed halite. Halite exhibits plastic creep behaviour so that the nuclear waste containers
will rapidly be fixed within salt rock. The waste container is expected to remain intact
until short-lived radionuclides have decayed to background (exemption) levels. A salt
dome at Gorleben was thoroughly investigated with two access shafts being sunk to the
depth of a prospective national GDF [22].
6.2. Borehole Disposal Facilities (BDFs)
The borehole-type disposal facilities (BDFs) can effectively provide long-term isola-
tion of nuclear waste in suitable geological horizons [2,3,36–38]. Shallow BDFs have been
used within many decades in many countries for storage and disposal of radioactive waste
including disused sealed radioactive sources (DSRS) [39]. Compared with mined disposal
facilities, BDFs have shorter periods of site selection, construction, operation, and closure
as well as a lower probability of human intrusion compared to mined shaft-type disposal
facilities. The concept of a BDF near the surface or at intermediate depths is supported by
the IAEA specifically for the disposal of DSRSs [39]. The interest in BDFs has recently
increased in many countries, e.g., the UK, the US, Russia, Sweden, Germany, Israel, Aus-
tralia, Croatia, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, and Slovenia [36,40–43]. BDFs can be
reliable and effective disposal facilities, especially using horizontal drillholes (Figure 9)
by utilising the existing drilling technologies [36,44].
Energies
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